Cardiac output estimation using pulse wave analysis—physiology, algorithms, and technologies: a narrative review

Pulse wave analysis (PWA) allows estimation of cardiac output (CO) based on continuous the arterial blood pressure (AP) waveform. We describe physiology AP waveform, basic principles PWA algorithms for CO estimation, and technologies available clinical practice. The waveform is a complex physiological signal that determined by interplay left ventricular stroke volume, systemic vascular resistance, compliance. Numerous are to estimate CO, including Windkessel models, long time interval or multi-beat analysis, pulse power recording analytical method. Invasive, minimally-invasive, noninvasive monitoring systems can be classified according method they use calibrate estimated values in externally calibrated systems, internally uncalibrated systems.